Behaviorism and Gender

Making everyday decisions is an inevitable course of our day by day existence. The choices we do concerning our diet, tabufits, daily hygiene, companions and others seem as a normal daily routine. Thus, most of the time we seldom contemplate on the extremity by which we wear accomplished our daily decision-making tasks. Meanwhile, different psychological theories supported the effect that every human air is molded and propel take by motives and rewards such as regimen, mvirtuosoy, status, and prestige (Howard and Hollander 43).Humans behave in ways for the attainment of their goals and avoidance of shun events and consequences that bring pain and suffering (Howard and Hollander 43). In this connection, humans shape their personalities in parallel with societal expectations so as to gain social word meaning (Howard and Hollander 43). In this way, the attainment of goal and avoidance of negative experiences atomic number 18 such(prenominal) assured. Hence, the capturement or acquisition of sex activity, a societal sexual perspective, is coarsely influenced by psycho-sociological doers (Howard and Hollander 43).In the early historical period of psychological disciplines, lookism became the sand of psychological studies on human behavior (Howard and Hollander 43). Although contemporary theories have kaput(p) beyond the postulates of behaviorists like mule skinner and Pavlov, their psychological principles served as the bases for intensive and innovational studies in the field of psychology (Howard and Hollander 43). by studies on animal behaviors, behavioural psychologists made assumptions on perception, motivation, and learning of every individual (Howard and Hollander 43).They scrutinized every factor that gos behavioral attri scarcees of the discomfit animal then apply it on their data-based studies on humans (Howard and Hollander 43). holy learn Ivan Pavlovs nonion slightly t to each one reflex is a result of his studies on anima l digestion (Elliot et al. 203). In his experiments, he observed that cad produces saliva in anticipation of food. The extend of saliva in dogs mouth was observed in response not plainly on the sight of food pocketbook but also upon hearing the attendants sound during feeding.The dog was conditioned that seeing the attendant or hearing a cost is a signal of giving food (Elliot et al. 203). Thus, the dog salivated either in the sight of the attendant or upon hearing the bell shape. Pavlov called each signal as conditioned stimulation. He explained that the food is the unconditioned comment that raise salivation as a response (Elliot et al. 203). At first, salivation was induced upon the sight of food. Then, the food was habituated simultaneously with metronome. After sometime, the metronome unaccompanied caused dogs salivation (Elliot et al. 203). Classical Conditioning and sexIn peasant rearing practices, at very young succession children are conditioned on the choice of garments and toys appropriate to their sexes. This condition as absorb by the child tail possibly be use on different settings. For instance, the choice of toys based on sexes such as Barbie doll for a girl and plastic gun for a boy, would unfold to the childs discretion on the subject of game or playmates he or she will involved into. This is called remark familiarization wherein the conditioned behavior, the choice of toys, affected the preference for games or playmates.On the other hand, if the initial teach did not affect other preferences, the child then learned the process of discrimination. Through discrimination, the child has limited his or her behavior only on the conditioned stimulus which is the toy selection in this case. Also, the defunctness of spill of conditioned stimulus effect on ones behavior is possible. In Pavlovs experiments, after several trials of presenting food to the dog without the metronome, the metronome alone did not elicit salivation when presented (Elliot et al. 203).Hence, a child as old age pass-by may lose the conditioned stimulus toy selection on his or her look. Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner made refinements on the principles of classical teach and applied his psychological ideas on different human endeavors (Elliot et al. 208). He proposed the immensity of reinforcement in eliciting a desired behavior and that environment has great influence in ones behavior. In his operant conditioning, he emphasized that environment reinforces or terminates ones behavior, thus, has the key subprogram in understanding behavior (Elliot et al. 208).According to Skinner, behavior is a product of a three-connective processes operation performed by the organism, inner condition, and behavioral response (Elliot et al. 208). Skinner evoke desired behaviors among his subject animals such as rats and pigeons with his operant chamber (Mayers). Later on, researchers tested the different reinforcers and scheduling of such t o facilitate the determine of desired behavior. They found that the acquisition of desired behavior although less by partial reinforcement schedules as compared with continuous reinforcement, but produced more extinction resistance (Mayers).Moreover, punishment applied to achieve the desired behavior or to terminate a particular behavior, even though has negative consequences, but effective when immediately and consistently given (Mayers). Operant Conditioning and Gender Behavioral theorists suggested that every creature regardless of race, societal status, sex and profession is governed by the same behavioral principles (Howard and Hollander 44). In terms of behaviorism, the development of sexuality could be possibly explained by making a ruling that sex activity differences and similarities are behavioral consequences (Howard and Hollander 44).Experiments can be designed to elicit gender behavioral patterns of both masculines and females finished different reinforcement pa ttern. In behavioral perspectives, men and women could be either aggressive or nurturing if they are awarded or punished in such behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Then, through field studies, behaviorists can assess environmental factors influencing men or women and yield plausible translation for the behavioral effects of these factors (Howard and Hollander 44). Through conditioning process, the gender can be imparted into the childs mind either unconsciously or purposively.The type of garments or toys given to the child may embark into his or her mind some restrictions on the things he or she can be used. In addition, some parents either directly or indirectly, inculcate a male child to imitate his fathers behavior, action, and style while a female child to be like her mother. By conforming to these maternal expectations, the child gains positive degree reinforcements from his or her parents that strengthen his or her behavior. With these, the child may form his or her early conceptions of gender role and stereotypes. Criticisms on Conditioning TheoryEven though many studies have been conducted to support the conditioning theory of gender development, these are mostly conducted with animals (Naik). In 1984, K. Boulding contended the Skinners generalization more or less the applicability of the principles drawn from animal studies into complex behavior of humans (Naik). He suggested that more studies with human participants mustiness be conducted in order to analyse the validity of Skinners postulates. While Skinners operant conditioning has been recognized in neurosis and phobia therapy, but unruffled insufficient to explain complex human attributes such as lyric and memory (Naik).In line with this, M. E. P. Seligman proposed that aside from classical and operational conditioning, genetic provision has a crucial role in the development of behavioral characteristics (Naik). This thirdly factor associates a particular reinforcer or stimulus to a ce rtain response. He further argued that most behaviorist have use offhanded sets of stimulus like shock and light, exitd less input for the necktie process, then created generalization of unprepared behavioral output applicable to general cases (Naik).Therefore, even if the behaviorists principles are valid with respect to their sets of unprepared stimulus in laboratory experiments, but still insufficient to provide plausible explanations for prepared behaviors (Naik). Nonetheless, Seligman cited the work of Rozin and Garcia (1971) wherein rats were given with sweetened wet as flash of lights and noise were applied simultaneously (Naik). Then, the subjects were treated with X-rays to induce unwellness and nausea. After several hours, rats became ill and develop aversion with sweetened water but not with noise or light (Naik).According to Seligman genetic predispositions led to the aversion of rats with anything that may cause illness on their part (Naik). in condition(p) Emotion al Reactions The Little Albert Study In 1920 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner tested the future(a) in their experimental study developing and conditioning an infant to alarm an animal through brassy and timiditying sound the possibility to develop idolatry to other animals or objects through the conditioned fear and the time duration of the conditioned fear (Brain 135). Waston and Reyner selected a healthy and unemotional, around nine-month old child named Albert B.as subject of their study (Brain 135). At the start, Albert has no fear in traffic with animals and other objects. When a metal bar is struck by a claw hammer behind him, Albert develops fear. After two-month observation with Albert, Watson and Reyner conditioned him to develop fear with a sinlessness rat by a loud clanging sound, produce by the metal bar and claw hammer, as he touches the rat (Brain 135). After seven trials of rat and noise pairing, fear was developed with Albert as the rat was presented alone ( Brain 135).Then, after five days, the rat, a rabbit, a sealskin coat, the heads of Watson and his assistants, a shorthaired dog, a Santa Claus mask, a package of white cotton, and wooden blocks were presented to Albert. He showed strong fear with the rat, sealskin coat, dog and rabbit, and a mild fear response with cotton (Brain 136). On the other hand, Albert did not develop fear with the mask, Watsons hair, and wooden blocks (Brain 135). Five more days later, the rat, dog, and rabbit each paired with a loud noise were over again presented to Albert but he has only showed slight reaction for each stimulus (Brain 136).Finally, after thirty-one days, the rat, dog, rabbit, sealskin coat, and Santa Claus mask were again presented to Albert. Watson and Reyner found out that although Albert still showed fear on these things, he manifested tendency to touch each object (Brain 136). Evaluation and Criticisms The Little Albert Study provided an empirical basis for Watsons theory on the dev elopment of emotion and behavior (Brain 137). Watson proved through this experiment that emotional responses can be conditioned and learned.He concluded that phobias are conditioned responses that probably an original fear with a particular stimulus which has been transferred to another object in the duration of time (Brain 137). Similarly with Sigmund Freud, Watson believed that mature personality is significantly influenced by childhood early experiences (Brain 137). However, his work was criticized on the ground that emotional responses are qualitative attributes that can be exactly measured (Brain 137). In addition, since they only have a single subject in their experiment, principles that are valid for general cases may not plausibly be drawn from the results of their study.Since, there was no follow-up studies after Albert has leaved the hospital, the effects on conditioning made were not determined, thus, Watsons notion on early childhood experiences and behavioral develo pment lacked definite produce (Brain 137). Moreover, ethical issues have been imputed with Watsons works for he manipulated Albert by purposively creating fearing situations (Brain 137). He failed therefore to consider the spontaneous development of behavior through raw(a) settings. Analysis and ConclusionBehaviorists were criticized for their notion that every organism follows similar norms as determined by their conditioning principles (Mayers). At present, it is an accepted psychological truth that conditioning principles are governed by learning and hindered by biological factors (Mayer). In Pavlovs classical conditioning, the subject animal learned to anticipate for an unconditioned stimulus however, animals have biological attributes in learning associations like recognition of destructive food through smell association (Mayers).Thus, behavior is not only elicited through external stimulus such as bell (Mayers). Behaviorists found that animal behavior can be shaped throug h reinforcement or the association of a response behavior with eliciting positive or negative stimulus (Howard and Hollander 44). They suggested that this principle as applied on humans could possibly provide clear behavioral explanations (Howard and Hollander 44). As applied on humans, behavioral theorists proposed that consequences of actions could provide understanding of the behavior of an individual (Howard and Hollander 44).This could be through by relating an action with the consequences of a similar action done in the past. Further, behaviorists believed that if in the past experiences, actions of an individual created rewards and punishments (Howard and Hollander 44). Actions that were rewarded are tended to be tell in the present time while actions associated with punishments are avoided (Howard and Hollander 44). However, behavioral theorists have only considered behavior and neglected thoughts and emotions.According to them, thoughts, emotions or feelings are not behavi oral determinants but are just by-products of the environmental effects on ones behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Cognitive and constructive psychologists criticized Skinner for he has given value on the external control of behavior and underestimated the cognitive and biological precepts (Mayers). For instance, contemporary studies on learning and motivation revealed the crucial role of cognition and physiological brain processes.Nevertheless, operant principles were deemed to control people, thus, led to ethical issues (Mayers). Nowadays, Skinners psychological notions are applied for success reinforcement in different fields (Mayers). Through operant conditioning, a desired behavior is produced by giving positive reinforcements while a behavior is change by applying punishing stimulus. Based on the above discussions, the process of acculturation has a crucial role on gender acquisition and development. Through socialization process, an individual learns the societal norms and mores.The agents of socialization such as family, educational institution, peers, and media reflect and even dictate conditioned gender stereotypes that an individual must conform with otherwise leads to societal ridicule. In line with this, gender stereotypes shaped masculinity as an individuals ability to control themselves on emotional situations whenever necessary especially within the workplace and even in their sexual relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Thus, has influenced male behaviors as being competitive, assertive, independent, assertive, confident, tough, often angered and violent.With these characteristics on hand, males must keep in mind to evade having feminine characteristics such as being expressive on their thoughts, emotional, vulnerable and intimate in avoidance of societal ridicule (Lothstein 212-214). In the society, being feminine is traditionally described as nurturing, supportive, and assigning high priority to ones relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Also, females are evaluate to avoid manly behaviors like being competitive, assertive and often infuriated and violent (Lothstein 212-214).Therefore, behaviorism views may not suffice to provide a plausible explanation for the development and acquisition of gender. Unlike the subjects of the behavioral psychologists in their laboratory experiments, humans are exposed to the different socio-cultural factors that spontaneously affect behavioral attributes. Hence, behavioral theories should be incorporated with other contemporary theories on gender such as psychoanalytic, psychosocial, social-cognitive, biological, and schema theory for a make better perspective on gender acquisition and development. Works CitedBrain, Christine. Advanced appurtenant Psychology Approaches and Methods. UK Nelson Thornes, 2000. Elliot, Stephen N. , Kratochwill, Thomas R. , Cook, Joan Littlefield, and Travers, John F. Educational Psychology legal Teaching, Effective Learning, 3rd Ed. Boston, MA McGraw Hil l, 2000. Howard, Judith A. and Hollander, Jocelyn. Gendered Situations, Gendered Selves A Gender Lens on affable Psychology. Lanham, Maryland Rowman Altamira, 1997. Lothstein, Leslie Martin. Female-to-Male Transsexualism. Boston Routledge and Kegan Paul plc, 1983Mayers, David G. Psychology, 8th Ed. 2006. Worth Publishers. 9 January 2009 . Naik, Payal. behaviourism as a Theory of Personality A Critical Look. terrible 1998. Personality Papers. 9 January 2009 http//www. personalityresearch. org/papers/naik. html.